clinical-trials

How to read a clinical trial result with discipline — the difference between absolute and relative risk reduction, what number-needed-to-treat captures, what confidence intervals actually mean, the hierarchy of evidence quality, and why statistical significance is not the same as clinical importance.

The phased structure of drug development from preclinical work through phase IV surveillance, what each phase actually establishes, the 90% attrition rate and where it lives, the difference between surrogate and hard clinical endpoints, and what regulatory approval pathways guarantee.